English as a Second Language Essay Example for Free

English as a Second Language Essay America is truly a great nation. With all its progress, everyone outside the country desire to live and migrate in this country. In fact, it has become a popular migration destination aside from Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Thus, in every city in America, there are communities of people with diverse culture and origin. Hence, this paper attempts to dissect the policies being implemented by the government concerning English as a second language in America. History  The history of Bilingual Education in the United States can be traced in the founding of America as the nation’s founder adopted neither an official language nor a government-sanctioned body to regulate speech (Ovando, 2003, p. 1). Carlos T. Ovando of the Arizona State University reveals that behind the monolingual culture image of America, thousands of other American Indian languages were spoken in the 15th century, paving for the complexities and diversities in the linguistic culture of America. But Ovando says, most of these languages were filtered along with their cultural realities, as the founders envisioned a â€Å"country with a unified history, traditions, and a common language† (2003, p. 2). Ovando noted that this vision was based in general on the English system and schooling practices (2003, p. 2). But, language policy controversies from the beginning not prevented the founders to enforce a mono-language system or to regulate speech (2003, p. 2). During that time European language particularly Spanish was dominant that they were treated with respect more likely than others, and their speaker being accommodated in school and government services. Ovando calls this formative period as the period of â€Å"linguistic tolerance† because of the absence of strong and solid policy on language diversity (Ovando, p. 3). As the influx of immigrants from European countries continuous, diversity of language continuous to widen as immigrants hang on to their maternal languages. Thus, in the 19th century, laws were passed authorizing Bilingual Education. American states were allowed bilingual instructions in public and private schools (Ovando, p. 4). Research Many individual Americans were so concerned to have a national language and this reflected in the slogan â€Å"one country one language† (Ovando and Willey as cited in the work of Reid and Bourne, p. 141). The most notable was Noah Webster who attempted to create â€Å"a unique national character defined by common American English (Ovando and Willey as cited in the work of Reid and Bourne, p. 41). Their desire must be legitimate since English language has now been spoken around the world by about 1. 5 billion people. That means, English language has now become global and a stand as a medium of communication world wide. Thus, there is a need to teach English on schools not only in America but in every country of the world. Jill Bourne and Evan Reid pointed out that because of English is widely spoken; it has a wide range of context from air-traffic control down to popular music (p. 161). These according to Reid and Bourne create a need to learn English language to be able to communicate internationally. In the report made by Patricia Anne DiCerbo, throughout America, many foreign students are enrolling ranging from elementary to high schools, which’s common reason is migration from many parts of the world; and the dominant group among other groups is the Spanish-speaking people who are mostly coming from Latin America. She also noted that this group of students is the fastest growing group in the United States. These students are facing a lot of challenges in terms of academic performance because of language barrier. This problem poses some problems; for instance, in her (DiCerbo’s) report, about fifty-fifty percent of Latino Youth are having the opportunity to graduate or finish high school. This simple report gave DiCerbo a perception that English Language Learning should be given to foreign students. Ovando in the book English Language Learning in America pointed out some reasons or fears why English language is now being pushed (as cited by Reid and Bourne, p. 138). A lot of Americans are worried about the influx of immigrants from Latin America for fear they may pose threat to the cultural integrity of the nation. There are common concerns that American cities will be filled with Spanish or German-speaking aliens; and they live for years speaking only their own mother tongue and will never learn English (Reid and Bourne, p. 138). Another thing is that they fear that foreign language speakers may weakened the national body of politics as what had happened in Quebec, Canada because of the dominant French speaking aliens. Ovando quoted Governor Dick Lamn’s statement emphasizing the need to make English the official language in schools and in government. The statement said â€Å"immigrants who fail to assimilate in the society are social time bombs. † Finally, Ovando emphasized that in order for any one to get ahead; one has to be fluent in English (p. 138). In view of the above historical background, there is no reason to reject English Language Learning for it does in the first place, emphasize the need for everyone to learn and be fluent in English. Carrasquillo and Rodriguez said that ELL students are encouraged to learn academic and skills in English (p. 20). English Language Learning according to them means only of advancing simultaneously in the stages of developing interpersonal skills, mastering subject area content and skills, and acquiring academic language proficiency for each subject area, all in their second language which is English (Carrasquillo and Rodriguez, p. 0). Through retention of ELL, limited English proficient students are given the opportunity to cope up deficiencies in learning using English as medium of communication. Theory For us to be able to make a conclusion regarding the issue of bilingual policy in education, it would be important to understand the theoretical argument regarding this matter. There are various theories about bilingual policies of the United States but as space constraint, this paper cited only one theory although, there are several theories that discussed about bilingual education in the United States such as theory of Kloss (1977-1988) regarding the tolerant mood during the formative years; Baron (1990) emphasizing on slight development of English Language for the past two hundred years; REcinto (1998) which is talking about poor language minorities. It is easy to agree that these theories help in understanding language policies, especially on making conclusion about the issue. As Ovando pointed out that history is full of evidence that support any of these theories. The theory of Heath (1983-1990) tells us that the relationship between the literacy practices from each community corresponds closely to the literacy practice and expectation of the school. Heath found out that children from other community with English as their second language excel in their own community but fell behind in school. These children are perceived as lacking in school readiness skills at the point of entry. This means that children having native language aside from English would have poor academic performance because of language deficiencies which supposed to be not since curriculum-wise, American schools are better. Foreign students are having deficiency in terms of literacy level because of racial division or factor. Conclusion America is an English-speaking nation and English language is the internationally accepted language. It is the sovereign right of America to enforce to its citizens the use of their tongue as official medium of instruction both in public and private, as well as in government. Language is very important and it is a unifying instrument of a nation. After centuries of tolerance, it is high time that America unites its citizens by being monolingual. This is highly important since America has become the convergence of many nations such as African, Asians, European and other languages in the world. If each of the foreign community living in the United States will use instructional materials in their native tongue, as well as use it as a medium of instruction inside the classroom, America is in danger of breaking into pieces their culture and language. In the same way, the government offered the ELL as a means to help immigrant students to cope up with the difficulty of speaking English in the classroom. This training provides necessary practices and lesson in order to develop communication skills among the students. Also, ELL is offered in all schools in America as part of the curriculum of students whose native language is not English. Thus, the ELL is thoroughly learned and mastered through which, students learn mastery of the language as well as skills of communication in English. In the words of Carlos Ovando, children need to learn the English language for them to get ahead.

Intelligence Collection and Analysis Essay -- Research

Improving the Relationship This paper will detail how I would explain to my policymaker what the psychological barriers are for intelligence collection and analysis. Next, I will provide an argument as to what types of rigors are needed to improve intelligence analysis making it more reliable. Finally, I will persuade the policymaker to support my argument in order to receive more funding in order to implement the type of improvements I have defined. Policymakers need to understand that analysts face psychological obstacles in four key stages of the analytical process, which are making judgments, coordinating judgments, confronting organizational norms, and substantive judgments. (George and Bruce, 2008) When an analyst makes a judgment based on inconclusive evidence the probability that a surprise will occur increases. These judgments are made under some constraint that restricts the analyst from verifying or even receiving further evidence to collaborate or disprove the current judgment. (George and Bruce, 2008) When analysts coordinate judgments with other analysts and managers, other agendas and biases are introduced into the analysis. Analyst need to be informed of the organization’s expectations of the analysis. Substantive judgments occur when an analyst’s ethics force the analyst to ignore the agendas of the policymakers and to be write judgments based on the evidence. (George and Bruce, 2008) All t hese psychological obstacles to sound judgment are clouded by complexity, uncertainty, and secrecy. Cognitive biases are distortions in information processing created by worldview, ideology, or political preference. (George and Bruce, 2008) The mindset of the analyst is the accumulated knowledge of past behav... ...s. Policymakers need to allow additional time, increase analyst-staffing levels, and provide better direction to analysts so that judgments will become sounder. By developing improved communications between the analysts and the policymaker the judgments will be more useful. These improvements are needed to increase the quality and timeliness of judgments. Works Cited George, Roger., Bruce, James. (Eds.). (2008) Analyzing Intelligence: Origins, Obstacles, and Innovations. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Heuer, Richards. (1999). Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. Retrieved November 28, 2010 from http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA500078&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf ledzapp461. (2005, December 22). Orson Welles Paul Masson Commercial. Retrieved November 29, 2010. From http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpj0t2ozPWY&feature=related Intelligence Collection and Analysis Essay -- Research Improving the Relationship This paper will detail how I would explain to my policymaker what the psychological barriers are for intelligence collection and analysis. Next, I will provide an argument as to what types of rigors are needed to improve intelligence analysis making it more reliable. Finally, I will persuade the policymaker to support my argument in order to receive more funding in order to implement the type of improvements I have defined. Policymakers need to understand that analysts face psychological obstacles in four key stages of the analytical process, which are making judgments, coordinating judgments, confronting organizational norms, and substantive judgments. (George and Bruce, 2008) When an analyst makes a judgment based on inconclusive evidence the probability that a surprise will occur increases. These judgments are made under some constraint that restricts the analyst from verifying or even receiving further evidence to collaborate or disprove the current judgment. (George and Bruce, 2008) When analysts coordinate judgments with other analysts and managers, other agendas and biases are introduced into the analysis. Analyst need to be informed of the organization’s expectations of the analysis. Substantive judgments occur when an analyst’s ethics force the analyst to ignore the agendas of the policymakers and to be write judgments based on the evidence. (George and Bruce, 2008) All t hese psychological obstacles to sound judgment are clouded by complexity, uncertainty, and secrecy. Cognitive biases are distortions in information processing created by worldview, ideology, or political preference. (George and Bruce, 2008) The mindset of the analyst is the accumulated knowledge of past behav... ...s. Policymakers need to allow additional time, increase analyst-staffing levels, and provide better direction to analysts so that judgments will become sounder. By developing improved communications between the analysts and the policymaker the judgments will be more useful. These improvements are needed to increase the quality and timeliness of judgments. Works Cited George, Roger., Bruce, James. (Eds.). (2008) Analyzing Intelligence: Origins, Obstacles, and Innovations. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Heuer, Richards. (1999). Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. Retrieved November 28, 2010 from http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA500078&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf ledzapp461. (2005, December 22). Orson Welles Paul Masson Commercial. Retrieved November 29, 2010. From http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpj0t2ozPWY&feature=related

Benefits of Low Student Teacher Ratio

The Benefits Derived From a Low Student –Teacher Ratio Albert Fuller American Intercontinental University English Composition II What are the possibilities and impacts of a low student-teacher ratio and how can it be beneficial to both students and teachers alike. Imagine yourself in a class of 30 or more students, you are eager to learn but find it hard to grab the attention of the teacher.You feel lost in a class of pupils and you don’t know if you are going to absorb the lesson of the day. Sitting at your desk wishing that your instructor focused more time on the subjects that you didn’t understand; you find yourself looking for opportunities to refocus attention on you. Hoping to gain the knowledge and intellect that will help prepare you for college, you soon realize that your teacher being overworked often times overlooks your progress.Many students in the world today face these problems. There are multiple signs that point to how reducing class sizes will show an improvement in several areas that are affecting educators and students and once these areas are controlled benefits will be shared by both groups. Students benefiting from the personalized learning experience of smaller classes have a higher probability of entering institutions of a higher level of education.A published journal by Finn & Gerber (2005) estimate that the large studies performed by three states comparing smaller to larger class sizes arrived at the same conclusion, â€Å"that smaller class sizes result in substantial gains in student achievement which sustain to graduation and beyond†. These were the STAR study in Tennessee, the SAGE studies in Wisconsin and the CSR studies in California. These combined studies measured how mixed variations of the learning environment have an impact on percentages relating to educational progress.Konstantopoulos (2008) has pointed to a fact that shows that the smaller learning environment in inner city schools has been s hown to provide students more time to learn details of lessons that would otherwise be cut short in larger classes. Teachers from inner city schools have reported that their students, when placed in a smaller class size are retaining information being delivered simply because they are more abled to review the lesson immediately with students that haven’t gasped the delivered concepts Konstantopoulos (2008).The students feel the benefit of education retention from the smaller classes and more prepared when entering college because of the detail in learning that was available to them during secondary education. A direct consequence of the failure to adequately fund public schools is budget restraints and students in low funded states have had to suffer from some of the largest class sizes in America due to this. State level government has been forced to choose between funding school programs and providing competitive pay to teachers.As a consequence of low school funding, many 9th Graders across the U. S. have the lowest percent of college completion. Burtless (1996) Causing educators to lose focus on the quality of education a student receives, many teachers believe that one of many drawbacks to House Bill 2261 is how it eliminated even the inadequate floor for school funding of the Basic Education Act and replaced it with class size funding at whatever level the State legislature wanted to fund schools during a particular year, this was a major one of many drawbacks to Bill 2261.Konstantopoulos and Chung (2009) Many scholars have cited that the percentage based funding the states have devised now leaves low-income areas of a state forced to have higher student-teacher ratios than other areas of the state; this has cause teachers to lose focus on educating students and be more so spending their days completing various paperwork. These teachers enjoy their profession less than teachers in low student-teacher ratio schools. Burtless (1996) Smaller classes would benefit teachers as well.They will have a smaller group of students to manage which with provide less chance of class disruptions and they will be able to progress through planned lessons in a smoother pace. Due to the low funding of some states, teachers with larger classes are focused on following lesson plans and paperwork with no time to use forms of creative instruction Burtless (1996). Without the individuals creative instruction students surveyed have reported that the information being delivered appears repetitive and less interesting causing them to lose focus and not retain the information being delivered.The focused learning experience that the smaller environment provides will boost class participation and will encourage students to have higher educational goals and will benefit these students in future endeavors. Fewer students will feel a lack of learning in a smaller learning environment. The smaller classes have shown improved statistics in academic behavior an d from this change we are able to see the need for structure in the class along with quality one-on-one time with teachers.Konstantopoulos (2008) Students in smaller class settings are able to retain focus and teachers are able to maintain direction. Fewer students in a class would allow teachers to monitor how well students are retaining information, reduce behavior issues and would prevent students from going off task. Parker (2008) With larger classes, teachers spend more time reviewing course material for those that are behind rather than moving on in subject matter.With the smaller class sizes, educators will be able to cover more subject matter and, in turn, students are shown to learn more than has been expected for that grade level. In conclusion, smaller classes are shown to improve the quality of learning that is currently being provided in larger classes. Students across America have taken part in studies discussed in this essay and experts agree that the benefits of a sm aller class have long lasting impacts on student relations with teachers and nourish the mind to achieve higher educational goals.Although funding in some states do not support smaller sized classrooms, reducing the class size has shown to have a significant impact on the effort a teacher uses in education, the participation of students in smaller classes when faced with more one-to-one instruction, behavior changes in smaller classes, and the increase in the level of education smaller students receives. References: Burtless, G. (1996) Does Money Matter? : The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement and Adult Success ISBN 0-8157-1275-8 Konstantopoulos, Spyros; Chung, Vicki (2009). â€Å"What Are the Long-Term Effects of Small Classes on the Achievement Gap?Evidence from the Lasting Bene? ts Study†. American Journal of Education 116 (1): 125–54. Konstantopoulos, Spyros. (2008). â€Å"Do Small Classes Reduce the Achievement Gap between Low and High Achievers? Evidence from Project STAR. † Elementary School Journal 108 (4): 275–91. Parker, L. (2008). Little Wonders http://www. aeufederal. org. au/Publications/AE/Spr08pp18-20. pdf Finn, J. D. , & Gerber, S. B. (2005) Small Class Sizes in Early Grades, Academic Achievement, and Graduating From High School, Journal of Educational Psychology, (97) (2) 214-223 http://www. apa. org/pubs/journals/releases/edu-972214. pdf

Gorhams Cave - the Most Recent Neanderthal Site

Gorhams Cave is one of numerous cave sites on the Rock of Gibraltar that were occupied by Neanderthals from about 45,000 years ago to perhaps as recently as 28,000 years ago. Gorhams cave is one of the last sites that we know were occupied by Neanderthals: after that, anatomically modern humans (our direct ancestors) were the only hominid walking the earth. The cave is located at the foot of the Gibraltar promontory, opening right onto the Mediterranean. It is one of a complex of four caves, all occupied when the sea level was much lower. Human Occupation Of the total 18 meters (60 feet) of archaeological deposit in the cave, the top 2 m (6.5 ft) includes Phoenician, Carthaginian, and Neolithic occupations. The remaining 16 m (52.5 ft) include two Upper Paleolithic deposits, identified as Solutrean and Magdalenian. Below that, and reported to be separated by five thousand years is a level of Mousterian artifacts representing a Neanderthal occupation between 30,000-38,000 calendar years ago (cal BP); beneath that is an earlier occupation dated about 47,000 years ago. Level I Phonician (8th-3rd century BC)Level II NeolithicLevel IIIa Upper Paleolithic Magdalenian 12,640-10,800 RCYBPLevel IIIb Upper Paleolithic Solutrean 18,440-16,420 RCYBPLevel IV Middle Paleolithic Neanderthal 32,560-23,780 RCYBP (38,50-30,500 cal BP)Level IV Basal Mousterian, 47,410-44,090 RCYBP Mousterian Artifacts The 294 stone artifacts from Level IV (25-46 centimeters [9-18 inches] thick) are exclusively Mousterian technology, mad of a variety of flints, cherts, and quartzites. Those raw materials are found on fossil beach deposits near the cave and in flint seams within the cave itself. The knappers used discoidal and Levallois reduction methods, identified by seven discoidal cores and three Levallois cores. In contrast, Level III (with an average thickness of 60 cm [23 in]) includes artifacts which are exclusively Upper Paleolithic in nature, albeit produced on the same range of raw materials. A stack of superimposed hearths dated to the Mousterian was placed where a high ceiling permitted ventilation of smoke, located near enough to the entrance for natural light to penetrate. Evidence for Modern Human Behaviors The dates for Gorhams Cave are controversially young, and one important side issue is the evidence for modern human behaviors. Recent excavations at Gorhams cave (Finlayson et al. 2012) identified corvids (crows) in the Neanderthal levels at the cave. Corvids have been found at other Neanderthal sites as well, and are believed to have been collected for their feathers, which may have been used as personal decoration. In addition, in 2014, Finlaysons group (Rodrà ­guez-Vidal et al.) reported that they had discovered an engraving at the back of the cave and at the base of Level 4. This panel covers an area of ~300 square centimeters  and consists of eight deeply engraved lines in a hash-marked pattern. Hash marks are known from much older Middle Paleolithic contexts in South Africa and Eurasia, such as Blombos Cave. Climate at Gorhams Cave At the time of the Neanderthal occupation of Gorhams Cave, from Marine Isotope Stages 3 and 2 before the Last Glacial Maximum (24,000-18,000 years BP), the sea level in the Mediterranean was considerably lower than it is today, annual rainfall was some 500 millimeters (15 inches) lower and the temperatures averaged some 6-13 degrees centigrade cooler. Plants in the charred wood of Level IV are dominated by coastal pine (mostly Pinus pinea-pinaster), as is Level III. Other plants represented by pollen in the coprolite assemblage including juniper, olive, and oak. Animal Bones Large terrestrial and marine mammal assemblages in the cave include red deer (Cervus elaphus), Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica), horse (Equus caballus) and monk seal (Monachus monachus), all of which show cutmarks, breakage, and disarticulation indicating they were consumed. Faunal assemblages between levels 3 and 4 are essentially the same, and herpetofauna (tortoise, toad, frogs, terrapin, gecko and lizards) and birds (petrel, great auk, shearwater, grebes, duck, coot) showing that the region outside of the cave was mild and relatively humid, with temperate summers and somewhat harsher winters than are seen today. Archaeology The Neanderthal occupation at Gorhams Cave was discovered in 1907 and excavated in the 1950s by John Waechter, and again in the 1990s by Pettitt, Bailey, Zilhao and Stringer. Systematic excavations of the interior of the cave began in 1997, under the direction of Clive Finlayson and colleagues at the Gibraltar Museum. Sources Blain H-A, Gleed-Owen CP, Là ³pez-Garcà ­a JM, Carrià ³n JS, Jennings R, Finlayson G, Finlayson C, and Giles-Pacheco F. 2013.  Climatic conditions for the last Neanderthals: Herpetofaunal record of Gorhams Cave, Gibraltar.  Journal of Human Evolution  64(4):289-299. Carrià ³n JS, Finlayson C, Fernà ¡ndez S, Finlayson G, Alluà © E, Là ³pez-Sà ¡ez JA, Là ³pez-Garcà ­a P, Gil-Romera G, Bailey G, and Gonzà ¡lez-Sampà ©riz P. 2008.  A coastal reservoir of biodiversity for Upper Pleistocene human populations: palaeoecological investigations in Gorhams Cave (Gibraltar) in the context of the Iberian Peninsula.  Quaternary Science Reviews  27(23–24):2118-2135. Finlayson C, Brown K, Blasco R, Rosell J, Negro JJ, Bortolotti GR, Finlayson G, Sà ¡nchez Marco A, Giles Pacheco F, Rodrà ­guez Vidal J et al. 2012.  Birds of a Feather: Neanderthal Exploitation of Raptors and Corvids.  PLoS ONE  7(9):e45927. Finlayson C, Fa DA, Jimà ©nez Espejo F, Carrià ³n JS, Finlayson G, Giles Pacheco F, Rodrà ­guez Vidal J, Stringer C, and Martà ­nez Ruiz F. 2008.  Gorhams Cave, Gibraltar—The persistence of a Neanderthal population.  Quaternary International  181(1):64-71. Finlayson C, Giles Pacheco F, Rodriguez-Vida J, Fa DA, Gutierrez Là ³pez JM, Santiago Pà ©rez A, Finlayson G, Allue E, Baena Preysler J, Cà ¡ceres I et al. 2006.  Late survival of Neanderthals at the southernmost extreme of Europe.  Nature  443:850-853. Finlayson G, Finlayson C, Giles Pacheco F, Rodriguez Vidal J, Carrià ³n JS, and Recio Espejo JM. 2008.  Caves as archives of ecological and climatic changes in the Pleistocene—The case of Gorhams cave, Gibraltar.  Quaternary International  181(1):55-63. Là ³pez-Garcà ­a JM, Cuenca-Bescà ³s G, Finlayson C, Brown K, and Pacheco FG. 2011.  Palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic proxies of the Gorham’s cave small mammal sequence, Gibraltar, southern Iberia.  Quaternary International  243(1):137-142. Pacheco FG, Giles Guzmà ¡n FJ, Gutià ©rrez Là ³pez JM, Pà ©rez AS, Finlayson C, Rodrà ­guez Vidal J, Finlayson G, and Fa DA. 2012.  The tools of the last Neanderthals: Morphotechnical characterisation of the lithic industry at level IV of Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar.  Quaternary International  247(0):151-161. Rodrà ­guez-Vidal J, dErrico F, Pacheco FG, Blasco R, Rosell J, Jennings RP, Queffelec A, Finlayson G, Fa DA, Gutierrez Là ³pez JM et al. 2014.  A rock engraving made by Neanderthals in Gibraltar.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  Early Edition. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1411529111 Stringer CB, Finlayson JC, Barton RNE, Fernà ¡ndez-Jalvo Y, Cà ¡ceres I, Sabin RC, Rhodes EJ, Currant AP, Rodrà ­guez-Vidal J, Pacheco FG et al. 2008. Proceedings of the National Academy  Neanderthal exploitation of marine mammals in Gibraltar.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  105(38):14319–14324.